The Viking Age lasted from the late 8th century to the late 11th century CE, during which Norse seafarers, explorers, and warriors undertaken raids, conquests and settlements throughout Europe. Known for their fierce raiding and battle tactics, the Vikings have captured the imagination of modern audiences with their bold exploration of distant lands and legendary raids. However, there was more to Viking culture than just violence and conquest. In this article, we will explore various aspects of authentic Viking culture, from their military tactics and daily lives to their religious beliefs and artistic traditions.
WARRIORS AND BATTLE TACTICS
When most people think of Vikings, the first thing that comes to mind are their fearsome warriors. Viking warriors were renowned for their ferocity in battle. Some of the most famous Viking warriors included Ragnar Lothbrok, a legendary Viking hero who is said to have raided Paris; Rollo, a Viking leader who became the first ruler of Normandy; and Thorkell the Tall, a formidable Jomsviking commander known for his imposing height and pivotal role in several notable battles.
Viking warriors prepared for battle early in life through training and exercises to build strength, stamina and combat skills. They used various weapons like axes, swords, spears and shields in battle. A popular fighting tactic was to form a defensive shield wall that was nearly impenetrable. Shields were used both offensively and defensively in a coordinated style. Viking warriors also favored using double-handed swords and polearms to gain leverage against their opponents from behind the shield wall formation.
Some of the bloodiest and most significant Viking battles include the Sack of Lindisfarne in 793 CE, widely considered the beginning of the Viking Age; the Siege of Paris in 845 CE where Ragnar Lothbrok was said to have led his men; and the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 CE which marked the end of the first period of Viking Age invasions in Ireland after a decisive Irish victory. Of course, one cannot discuss ancient Viking battles without mentioning the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 CE, where King Harald Hardrada of Norway was defeated and killed by English forces, just weeks before the Norman conquest under William the Conqueror.
DAILY LIFE IN VIKING SOCIETY
When not raiding or battling, Vikings lived in farming communities and settlements. The largest Viking towns included Birka and Hedeby. Birka, located on the island of Björkö in present-day Sweden, was one of the earliest and most important Viking trade centers in the late 8th to late 9th centuries. Ruins and artifacts from Birka have provided valuable insights into Viking everyday life, crafts and industries. Hedeby, near the southern Danish border with Germany, served as an important market town and fortified settlement from the 9th to 11th centuries.
Regarding gender roles, Norse society was largely patriarchal. However, women had certain rights and could own property. They managed the household and raised children when men were away raiding or trading. Skalds, or poet-musicians, commonly praised heroic deeds of ancestors to help preserve oral history and traditions. Rune stones were also erected as memorials for the fallen. The most famous Norse runestone is the Rök Stone in Sweden.
Vikings lived in longhouses, typically 80-100 feet long, which served as family dwellings, workshops, and barns. Families may have slept on bed platforms along the walls. During winter, they gathered for warmth inside the main hall where a central fire provided heat. In the summer, they would work outside and enjoy more leisurely activities. Major festivities were held, usually to mark changes in seasons.
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
Perhaps one of the most enduring legacies of the Vikings is their rich mythology and pagan religious beliefs. At the heart of Norse pantheon stood Odin, god of wisdom and ecstasy; mighty Thor, god of strength and thunder; and the beautiful yet enigmatic Freyja, goddess of love and beauty. Other prominent gods in Norse pantheon included Loki, the trickster god; Baldr, the god of innocence and peace; and Frigg, wife of Odin and mother of Baldr.
Central to Norse cosmology was the concept of Ragnarök, which essentially prophesized the fated downfall of the gods and complete destruction and renewal of the world. According to Norse mythology, this cataclysmic event would pit the forces of chaos, led by Loki against the defenders of stability like Odin. It would result in the deaths of almost all major figures, both gods and men, and the subsequent submerging of the world in water. However, it would also give rise to a new and fertile earth where surviving gods like Baldr and Höðr will live in a state of eternal bliss, harmony, and peace.
Norse mythology had a profound influence on Viking spirituality. Key beliefs included an afterlife in the shadowy realm of Helheim, ruled by the goddess Hel, or the majestic halls of Fólkvangr and Valhalla, domains respectively of Freyja and Odin. Valhalla in particular, with its endless feasting and preparation for the final war, embodied the Viking ideals of bravery, honor and glory in battle. Rituals were carried out to please the Norse gods and gain their favor. Heathen sacrifices, often of animals but sometimes humans, were made at religious sites.
RUNIC WRITINGS AND SYMBOLISM
The written language of Old Norse was called runic alphabet and it was composed of individual runic letters called runes. Runic inscriptions provide some of the most crucial surviving sources of information about Norse languages, culture and beliefs. Runic alphabets were drawn from the same Germanic group as Latin and certain letters had different names and shapes. Runes were used for inscriptions on standing stones, jewelry, tools, and weapons. One of the most complete rune-rows is the Younger Futhark which has 16 letters and was the most commonly used runic alphabet during the Viking Age.
Each rune carried symbolic meaning and magical powers beyond just representing sounds. For example, the Tiwaz rune invokes the god Tyr and signifies heroes, success in legal disputes, and self-control; Raidho rune means wagon, journey, and change; and Mannaz rune represents mankind, community, introversion, and intuition. Powerful bind-runes or combinations were believed to have potent magical properties. The word rune itself derives from the Old Norse word meaning “secret” or “something hidden”, highlighting their mystical significance. Prominent rune masters often carved runestones to commemorate great achievements. Over 2,500 surviving runic inscriptions are an important historical record of the Viking worldview.
ENTERPRISING TRADERS AND EXPLOERS
While known primarily for their raids, Vikings were also skilled traders, sailors and explorers who established trade routes as far as the Middle East and North America. They exported wares like walrus ivory, falcons, furs, lumber, soapstone, whetstones, and Norse slaves. In return, sought-after imports included silk, spices, glass, and coins. Major trading ports included Hedeby, Birka, Kiev, and Kaupang. The earliest European town to develop trade specializations was Hedeby, which had separate districts of crafts like pottery, metal smithing, weaving and soap boiling by the 10th century.
Viking longships, invented around 790–800 CE, enabled northern European societies to project naval power and exploration like no other before. With innovative clinker-built designs, shallow draughts, and sails, they were versatile oceangoing vessels highly suitable for offshore raiding, fishing, and waterborne trade routes. Major Viking exploratory and settlement voyages resulted in the discovery of Iceland by Norsemen around 870 CE and Greenland by 980-1000 CE. Leif Erikson, celebrated in Norse tradition, was likely the first European to land in North America around the year 1000. The Norse colonized parts of Iceland, Greenland, and briefly attempted settlements in Newfoundland, calling it Vinland.
DAILY LIFE: ART, CRAFTS AND DRESS
Art and craftsmanship thrived in Viking culture. Exquisite artifacts found in Oseberg and Gokstad burial mounds showcase expertise in shipbuilding, woodcarving, bone and antler carving, weaving, sewing, metal-smithing etc. Beautiful ornamental brooches and combs decorated withzoomorphic, animal-knot patterns were common adornments. Jewelry often incorporated filigreed metalwork, semiprecious stones, and Norse symbols.
Runes were finely etched onto wood, bone, and stone. Items bearing runic inscriptions have shed light on historical events, commerce, and relationships. Weapon pommels and inlaid knife handles evidenced superior metalsmithing. Finely wrought helmets and chainmail evidenced metallurgy skills. Bone and antler carvers created sleek combs and intricate gaming pieces. Weavers spun warm woolen cloaks and tunics. Shoemakers fashioned durable yet stylish boots.
Viking clothing styles varied by social status, gender and region, but often incorporated durable fabrics suitable for an active outdoors lifestyle. Common materials included wool, linen and fur.
Noble men usually wore linen or woolen tunics that fell below the hips, often quite ornate with embroidery. Over this would be a sleeved wool cloak fastened with a brooch. Trousers known as “braies” were linen or leather and fell to just below the knee. Footwear included boots that laced up the sides. Headgear ranged from soft wool caps to statelier helmets. Accessories like weapons belts and shoulder capes denoted rank and role in battle. Tattoos featuring Norse symbols were also popular body decorations for warriors.
Women’s dress centered around longer ankle-length dresses and skirts made from rectangular pieces of wool or linen wrapped around the body and held with a belt or brooch. Overdresses and aprons were worn on top. While traveling or working outdoors, women may have also worn trousers, boots and capes like men. Elaborate brooches at the shoulders held cloaks in place. Hairstyles varied regionally but plaited styles and clasps were common. Makeup and jewelry emphasized femininity.
Poorer peoples usually made do with more basic undyed woolens and linens. Children often wore simple shifts until coming of age. Regional variations existed based on available materials – Icelanders for example wore thicker sheepskin and furs due to the climate. Rus Vikings were influenced by Byzantine styles like tall fur hats. Greenland Norse adapted Inuit-inspired waterproof anoraks and boots. Overall practical yet expressive dress reinforced social identities and withstand adventure.
Vikings maintained vibrant spiritual, artistic and cultural traditions despite their fearsome image as raiders. Runestones, tool markings, textiles, and even weapons pommels evidence runes had diverse functional and symbolic uses beyond literacy. Distinctive dragon-prowed longships enabled widespread voyages, raids and trade influencing development of Europe and beyond. Celebrated Norse mythology and gods like Odin, Thor and Freya live on in modern works celebrating the Viking legacy. While their raids ended with Christianization, the Vikings’ fighting prowess, seafaring skills and pioneering spirit still capture imaginations today.
